This implies that coefficients in the graph can be interpreted as the pollution level in a given year, relative to the pollution level in the period before the treatment plant received a grant. This literature also finds that federal grants that require local matching funds and specify the grants purpose, both characteristics of the Clean Water Act grants, tend to have higher pass-through rates. None of these ratios exceeds 1, though they are closer to 1 than are the values in TableVI. Each of the four pollutants which are part of these fishable and swimmable definitions declined rapidly during this period. [1] It is one of the United States' first and most influential modern environmental laws, and one of the most comprehensive air quality laws in the world. Moreover, we are not aware of any existing ex post estimates of the cost required to make a river-mile fishable or to decrease dissolved oxygen deficits. But municipal investments that occurred were closely connected to grants, and point estimates imply that the grant costs in our data accurately represent the actual change in spending. Fecal coliforms are approximately log-normally distributed, and BOD and TSS are somewhat skewed (Online Appendix FigureI). We interpret pre-1972 trends cautiously, however, because far fewer monitoring sites recorded data before the 1970s (Online Appendix TableI) and because the higher-quality monitoring networks (NAWQA, NASQAN, and HBN) focused their data collection after 1972. In the years after a grant, downstream waters have 12% lower dissolved oxygen deficits, and become 12% less likely to violate fishing standards. Online Appendix B.3 describes the rule we use to choose indicators for this list; it mainly reflects the pollutants used in the USEPAs (1974) first major water pollution report after the Clean Water Act. Notes. The inverse propensity score reweighted estimates are designed to reflect the entire population of U.S. cities. A third question involves substitution. Estimates come from regression specifications corresponding to TableV, columns (3) and (4). Secure .gov websites use HTTPS After 1990, the trends approach zero. WHAT'S AT STAKE? Row 8 equals row 1 divided by 30 times row 6. Home prices and rents are deflated to 2014 dollars by the Bureau of Labor Statistics consumer price index for urban consumers. This explanation is less relevant for the slowing trends in continuous variables like BOD, fecal coliforms, or TSS. They suggest similar conclusions as Panels A and B. Graphs show year fixed effects plus a constant from regressions that also control for monitoring site fixed effects, a day-of-year cubic polynomial, and an hour-of-day cubic polynomial, corresponding to equation (1) from the text. As mentioned in the introduction, other recent analyses estimate benefits of the Clean Water Act that are smaller than its costs, though these other estimates note that they may also provide a lower bound on benefits. This implies that pollution levels in upstream and downstream waters had similar trends before grants were received. The Clean Water Act, by contrast, mostly ignores nonpoint pollution sources like agriculture. Hence decreases in acidic sulfur air pollution may have contributed to decreases in acidic water pollution. Panel A shows modest evidence that in the years after a plant receives a grant, the values of homes within 0.25 mile of the downstream river increase. Second, due to nonuse or existence values, a person may value a clean river even if they never visit or live near that river. FigureIV shows event study graphs, which suggest similar conclusions as these regressions. What are pros and cons of legalism? GLS based on the number of underlying pollution readings in each plant downstream year is an efficient response to heteroskedasticity since we have grouped data. The decline in mercury is noteworthy given the recent controversy of the Mercury and Air Toxics Standards (MATS) policy that would regulate mercury from coal-fired power plants. We find suggestive evidence that ratios of measured benefits to costs follow sensible patterns, though not all estimates are precise. The main regression sample includes only a balanced panel of tracts that appear in all four censuses between 1970 and 2000; imputing values for missing homes hardly changes the ratio in column (4). Propensity score for appearing in the balanced panel of cities is estimated as a function of log city population, log city total municipal expenditure, city type (municipality or township), and census division fixed effects, where city population and expenditure are averaged over all years of the data. Research does find statistically significant but imperfect correlation between perceived local water pollution and objectively measured local water pollution (Faulkner etal. Graphs show coefficients on downstream times year-since-grant indicators from regressions which correspond to the specification of TableII. Our estimated ratio of the change in housing costs to total grant costs may provide a lower bound on the true benefit/cost ratio of this grant program because we abstract from nonuse (existence) values, general equilibrium effects, potential changes in sewer fees, and the roughly 5% longest recreational trips. This contrasts with the regulation of surface water quality in developing countries and in the historic United States (Ebenstein 2012; Alsan and Goldin forthcoming), where drinking water is less well filtered, piped water access less widespread, and stringent drinking water standards less common or less well enforced. We now discuss six reasons the ratios of measured benefits to costs from the previous subsection may provide a lower bound on the true benefit/cost ratio. Identification from a national time series is difficult, since other national shocks like the 19731975 and early 1980s recessions, high inflation and interest rates, and the OPEC crisis make the 1960s a poor counterfactual for the 1970s and 1980s. Sample size in all regressions is 6,336. The point estimates imply that the benefits of the Clean Water Acts municipal grants exceed their costs if these unmeasured components of willingness to pay are three or more times the components of willingness to pay that we measure. International Spillovers and Water Quality in Rivers: Do Countries Free Ride? E_{cy}=\beta D_{cy}+\upsilon _{c}+\eta _{wy}+\epsilon _{cy}. Online Appendix E.2 discusses how cost-effectiveness numbers change with alternative estimates of crowding out.22. We emphasize a few caveats in interpreting TableIV. \end{equation*}. CBO (1985) dictates this time period because it provides the national total state and local spending data underlying this graph. To analyze how Clean Water Act grants affected home values, we use a difference-in-differences estimate comparing the change in the log mean value of homes within a 0.25-, 1-, or 25-mile radius in any direction of the downstream river, before versus after the plant receives a grant, and between plants receiving grants in early versus late years. JavaScript appears to be disabled on this computer. The National Survey of Recreation and the Environment and its predecessor, the National Recreation Survey, do not systematically summarize trips taken and travel distances. 1251 et seq. Online Appendix E.3 discusses interpretations of our housing estimates under alternative pass-through numbers. Panel A reports estimates of how grants affect log mean home values. We considered a fourth repository, the Sustaining the Earths Watersheds: Agricultural Research Data System (STEWARDS), managed by the USDA. This chart shows the health benefits of the Clean Air Act programs that reduce levels of fine particles and . Most others are statistically indistinguishable from the mean grant, though there is some moderate (if statistically insignificant) heterogeneity in point estimates. Data cover the years 19622001. One is to estimate hedonic regressions excluding housing units in the same city as the wastewater treatment plant. With mounting public demand, Congress passed what remains one of the most popular and effective environmental laws our nation has ever had, the Clean Water Act. Connected dots show yearly values, dashed lines show 95% confidence interval, and 1962 is the reference category. We find weak evidence that local residents value these grants, though estimates of increases in housing values are generally smaller than costs of the grant projects. Overall, this evidence does not suggest dramatic heterogeneity in cost-effectiveness. This map assumes the same hedonic price function and reflects spatial heterogeneity in housing unit density.25 The map shows that the ratio of measured benefits to costs is larger in more populated counties. This assumption could also fail if changes in governments effectiveness at receiving grants are correlated with governments effectiveness at operating treatment plants. \end{equation}. The Clean Water Act first appeared in American legislation in 1948 with the Federal Water Pollution Control Act. Please click here to see any active alerts. Nutrients were not targeted in the original Clean Water Act but are a focus of current regulation. We assume that housing markets are competitive and that each consumer rents one house. Adler Robert W., Landman Jessica C., Cameron Diane M.. Angrist Joshua D., Pischke Jrn-Steffen, Artell Janne, Ahtiainen Heini, Pouta Eija, , Boscoe Francis P., Henry Kevin A., Zdeb Michael S., , Carson Richard T., Mitchell Robert Cameron, , Currie Janet, Zivin Joshua Graff, Meckel Katherine, Neidell Matthew, Schlenker Wolfram, , Deschenes Olivier, Greenstone Michael, Shapiro Joseph S., , Faulkner H., Green A., Pellaumail K., Weaver T., , Gianessi Leonard P., Peskin Henry M., , Jeon Yongsik, Herriges Joseph A., Kling Catherine L., Downing John, , Kahn Matthew E., Li Pei, Zhao Kaxuan, , Keiser David A., Kling Catherine L., Shapiro Joseph S., , Kling Catherine L., Phaneuf Daniel J., Zhao Jinhua, , Leggett Christopher G., Bockstael Nancy E., , Lipscomb Molly, Mobarak Ahmed Mushfiq, , Muehlenbachs Lucija, Spiller Elisheba, Timmins Christopher, , Muller Nicholas Z., Mendelsohn Robert, , Muller Nicholas Z., Mendelsohn Robert, Nordhaus William, , Olmstead Sheila M., Muehlenbachs Lucija A., Shih Jhih-Shyang, Chu Ziyan, Krupnick Alan J., , Peiser Richard B., Smith Lawrence B., , Poor P. Joan, Boyle Kevin J., Taylor Laura O., Bouchard Roy, , Smith Richard A., Alexander Richard B., Wolman M. Gordon, , Smith V. Kerry, Wolloh Carlos Valcarcel, , Steinwender Astrid, Gundacker Caludia, Wittmann Karl J., , Wu Junjie, Adams Richard M., Kling Catherine L., Tanaka Katsuya, , Oxford University Press is a department of the University of Oxford. The Clean Water Act was produced as a means for the EPA to implement pollution control programs alongside setting water quality standards for all contaminants in surface waters. Some studies in historic or developing country settings, where drinking water regulation is limited, relate surface water quality to health (Ebenstein 2012; Greenstone and Hanna 2014; Alsan and Goldin forthcoming). These regressions are described in equation (4) from the text. \end{align}, To estimate the pass-through of Clean Water Act grants to local expenditure, we regress cumulative municipal sewerage capital expenditures, \begin{equation} But if local governments ultimately pay these costs, they could depress home values. Notes. The gradual effect of the grants is unsurprising since, as mentioned earlier, the EPA estimates that it took 2 to 10 years after a grant was received for construction to finish. Finally, we note one similarity between air and water pollution that may be relevant to policy design. A .gov website belongs to an official government organization in the United States. Decent Essays. The 1972 law was formally called the Federal Water Pollution Control Amendments, though we follow common practice in referring to it as the Clean Water Act. As the modification to the Federal Pollution Control Act of 1972, the Clean Water Act of 1977 is the most important federal law that protects the sanitation of water, which includes lakes, rivers, and coastal areas. Most analyses of recent U.S. water quality regulation count little direct benefit from improving human health (Lyon and Farrow 1995; Freeman 2000; USEPA 2000a; Olmstead 2010).29. Flint, Michigan, has recently had high lead levels in drinking water due to switching its water source from the Detroit River to the Flint River. A few points are worth noting. Effects of Clean Water Act Grants on Water Pollution. Market-based instruments are believed to be more cost-effective than alternatives. Column (4) reweights estimates using the inverse of the estimated propensity score for inclusion in the balanced panel of cities. Second, because the difference-in-differences specification used for home values does not use upstream areas as a counterfactual, it involves the stronger identifying assumption that areas with more and fewer grants would have had similar home price trends in the absence of the grants. Column (4) includes imputed home values for the nonmetro areas that were not in the 1970 or 1980 census.24, Clean Water Act Grants: Costs and Effects on Home Values (|${\$}$|2014B|$\mathrm n$|). First, people might have incomplete information about changes in water pollution and their welfare implications. Because most grants were given in the 1970s, we observe water pollution up to 10years before and 1525years after most grants. Panel C estimates the effect of grants on log housing units and Panel D on the log of the total value of the housing stock. Water Pollution Control Act 1948. (1972) The Clean Water Act (CWA) establishes the basic structure for regulating discharges of pollutants into the waters of the United States and regulating quality standards for surface waters. The definition also includes standards for boating and drinking water that we do not analyze. The Roles of Environmental Regulation, Productivity, and Trade. Standard errors are clustered by watershed. Column (3) include all homes within 1 mile, and column (4) includes homes within 25 miles. Column (1) shows estimates for homes within a quarter mile of downstream waters. Benefits and Costs of the Clean Air Act Section 812 of the 1990 Amendments (Public Law 101-549) requires EPA conduct scientifically reviewed studies of the impact of the Clean Air Act on the public health, economy and environment of the United States. See Kline and Walters (2016) for a related analysis in education. Focus on balancing cost and health . The Clean Air Act covers essentially all major polluting sectors. Temperature is increasing by about 1F per 40years, which is consistent with effects from climate change. The 1972 to 2001 change equals the fitted value Year*29 + Year*1[Year>=1972]*29. A few notes are important for interpreting these statistics. Misperception would be less important if most benefits of surface water quality accrue through recreation or aesthetics, since failing to perceive water pollution through any means would mean its effects on recreational demand are limited. Connected dots show yearly values, dashed lines show 95% confidence interval. Although a point estimate of 0.41 for the ratio of benefits to costs does not exceed 1, one should interpret this value in light of the discussion from the next subsection that it may be a lower bound on true benefits. Standard errors are clustered by watershed. People breathe the air quality where they live, and relocating to another airshed or some other defenses against air pollution are costly (Deschenes, Greenstone, and Shapiro 2017). It may be useful to highlight differences in how the Clean Air and Clean Water Acts answer four important questions about environmental regulation. Each grant significantly decreased pollution for 25 miles downstream, and these benefits last for around 30years. The bottom decile of counties, for example, includes ratios of measured benefits to costs of below 0.01. RFF is committed to being the most widely trusted source of research insights and policy solutions leading to a healthy environment and a thriving economy. Many travel demand papers use small surveys that report distance traveled to a specific lake or for a narrow region. Data on industrial water pollution in the 1960s is less detailed, though manufacturing water intake (which is highly correlated with pollution emissions) was flat between 1964 and 1973 due to increasing internal recycling of water (Becker 2016). Alternatively, the most distant travelers might be marginal. They then use the regression estimates from column (4) of TableV to calculate the ratio of the change in the value of housing and grant costs, separately by decile. Season controls are a cubic polynomial in day of year. These full data show more rapid declines before 1972 than after it. Column (1) reports a basic difference-in-differences regression with nominal dollars. Imperfect Risk Sharing and the Business Cycle, Cultural Distance and Conflict-Related Sexual Violence, The Other Great Migration: Southern Whites and the New Right, |$\left(\approx \frac{33.7}{1.4}\right)$|, |$P_{z_{j}}\equiv \frac{\partial P}{\partial z_{j}}$|, Browse content in A - General Economics and Teaching, A11 - Role of Economics; Role of Economists; Market for Economists, B - History of Economic Thought, Methodology, and Heterodox Approaches, Browse content in B - History of Economic Thought, Methodology, and Heterodox Approaches, Browse content in B4 - Economic Methodology, C - Mathematical and Quantitative Methods, Browse content in C - Mathematical and Quantitative Methods, C1 - Econometric and Statistical Methods and Methodology: General, Browse content in C1 - Econometric and Statistical Methods and Methodology: General, C14 - Semiparametric and Nonparametric Methods: General, C2 - Single Equation Models; Single Variables, Browse content in C2 - Single Equation Models; Single Variables, C21 - Cross-Sectional Models; Spatial Models; Treatment Effect Models; Quantile Regressions, C23 - Panel Data Models; Spatio-temporal Models, C26 - Instrumental Variables (IV) Estimation, C3 - Multiple or Simultaneous Equation Models; Multiple Variables, Browse content in C3 - Multiple or Simultaneous Equation Models; Multiple Variables, C31 - Cross-Sectional Models; Spatial Models; Treatment Effect Models; Quantile Regressions; Social Interaction Models, C32 - Time-Series Models; Dynamic Quantile Regressions; Dynamic Treatment Effect Models; Diffusion Processes; State Space Models, C35 - Discrete Regression and Qualitative Choice Models; Discrete Regressors; Proportions, C4 - Econometric and Statistical Methods: Special Topics, Browse content in C4 - Econometric and Statistical Methods: Special Topics, Browse content in C5 - Econometric Modeling, C52 - Model Evaluation, Validation, and Selection, C55 - Large Data Sets: Modeling and Analysis, C6 - Mathematical Methods; Programming Models; Mathematical and Simulation Modeling, Browse content in C6 - Mathematical Methods; Programming Models; Mathematical and Simulation Modeling, C63 - Computational Techniques; Simulation Modeling, Browse content in C7 - Game Theory and Bargaining Theory, C73 - Stochastic and Dynamic Games; Evolutionary Games; Repeated Games, C8 - Data Collection and Data Estimation Methodology; Computer Programs, Browse content in C8 - Data Collection and Data Estimation Methodology; Computer Programs, Browse content in C9 - Design of Experiments, D01 - Microeconomic Behavior: Underlying Principles, D02 - Institutions: Design, Formation, Operations, and Impact, D03 - Behavioral Microeconomics: Underlying Principles, D04 - Microeconomic Policy: Formulation; Implementation, and Evaluation, D1 - Household Behavior and Family Economics, Browse content in D1 - Household Behavior and Family Economics, D12 - Consumer Economics: Empirical Analysis, D13 - Household Production and Intrahousehold Allocation, Browse content in D2 - Production and Organizations, D23 - Organizational Behavior; Transaction Costs; Property Rights, D24 - Production; Cost; Capital; Capital, Total Factor, and Multifactor Productivity; Capacity, D31 - Personal Income, Wealth, and Their Distributions, D4 - Market Structure, Pricing, and Design, Browse content in D4 - Market Structure, Pricing, and Design, D43 - Oligopoly and Other Forms of Market Imperfection, D5 - General Equilibrium and Disequilibrium, Browse content in D5 - General Equilibrium and Disequilibrium, D61 - Allocative Efficiency; Cost-Benefit Analysis, D63 - Equity, Justice, Inequality, and Other Normative Criteria and Measurement, D7 - Analysis of Collective Decision-Making, Browse content in D7 - Analysis of Collective Decision-Making, D71 - Social Choice; Clubs; Committees; Associations, D72 - Political Processes: Rent-seeking, Lobbying, Elections, Legislatures, and Voting Behavior, D73 - Bureaucracy; Administrative Processes in Public Organizations; Corruption, D74 - Conflict; Conflict Resolution; Alliances; Revolutions, D78 - Positive Analysis of Policy Formulation and Implementation, D8 - Information, Knowledge, and Uncertainty, Browse content in D8 - Information, Knowledge, and Uncertainty, D81 - Criteria for Decision-Making under Risk and Uncertainty, D82 - Asymmetric and Private Information; Mechanism Design, D83 - Search; Learning; Information and Knowledge; Communication; Belief; Unawareness, D85 - Network Formation and Analysis: Theory, Browse content in D9 - Micro-Based Behavioral Economics, D91 - Role and Effects of Psychological, Emotional, Social, and Cognitive Factors on Decision Making, D92 - Intertemporal Firm Choice, Investment, Capacity, and Financing, E - Macroeconomics and Monetary Economics, Browse content in E - Macroeconomics and Monetary Economics, E01 - Measurement and Data on National Income and Product Accounts and Wealth; Environmental Accounts, Browse content in E1 - General Aggregative Models, E2 - Consumption, Saving, Production, Investment, Labor Markets, and Informal Economy, Browse content in E2 - Consumption, Saving, Production, Investment, Labor Markets, and Informal Economy, E22 - Investment; Capital; Intangible Capital; Capacity, E24 - Employment; Unemployment; Wages; Intergenerational Income Distribution; Aggregate Human Capital; Aggregate Labor Productivity, E25 - Aggregate Factor Income Distribution, E3 - Prices, Business Fluctuations, and Cycles, Browse content in E3 - Prices, Business Fluctuations, and Cycles, E37 - Forecasting and Simulation: Models and Applications, Browse content in E4 - Money and Interest Rates, E42 - Monetary Systems; Standards; Regimes; Government and the Monetary System; Payment Systems, E43 - Interest Rates: Determination, Term Structure, and Effects, E44 - Financial Markets and the Macroeconomy, E5 - Monetary Policy, Central Banking, and the Supply of Money and Credit, Browse content in E5 - Monetary Policy, Central Banking, and the Supply of Money and Credit, E51 - Money Supply; Credit; Money Multipliers, E6 - Macroeconomic Policy, Macroeconomic Aspects of Public Finance, and General Outlook, Browse content in E6 - Macroeconomic Policy, Macroeconomic Aspects of Public Finance, and General Outlook, Browse content in E7 - Macro-Based Behavioral Economics, E71 - Role and Effects of Psychological, Emotional, Social, and Cognitive Factors on the Macro Economy, Browse content in F - International Economics, F12 - Models of Trade with Imperfect Competition and Scale Economies; Fragmentation, F13 - Trade Policy; International Trade Organizations, F16 - Trade and Labor Market Interactions, F2 - International Factor Movements and International Business, Browse content in F2 - International Factor Movements and International Business, F21 - International Investment; Long-Term Capital Movements, F23 - Multinational Firms; International Business, Browse content in F3 - International Finance, F32 - Current Account Adjustment; Short-Term Capital Movements, F34 - International Lending and Debt Problems, F36 - Financial Aspects of Economic Integration, F4 - Macroeconomic Aspects of International Trade and Finance, Browse content in F4 - Macroeconomic Aspects of International Trade and Finance, F42 - International Policy Coordination and Transmission, F5 - International Relations, National Security, and International Political Economy, Browse content in F5 - International Relations, National Security, and International Political Economy, F51 - International Conflicts; Negotiations; Sanctions, F52 - National Security; Economic Nationalism, F55 - International Institutional Arrangements, Browse content in F6 - Economic Impacts of Globalization, Browse content in G - Financial Economics, G02 - Behavioral Finance: Underlying Principles, Browse content in G1 - General Financial Markets, G11 - Portfolio Choice; Investment Decisions, G12 - Asset Pricing; Trading volume; Bond Interest Rates, G14 - Information and Market Efficiency; Event Studies; Insider Trading, Browse content in G2 - Financial Institutions and Services, G21 - Banks; Depository Institutions; Micro Finance Institutions; Mortgages, G22 - Insurance; Insurance Companies; Actuarial Studies, G23 - Non-bank Financial Institutions; Financial Instruments; Institutional Investors, G24 - Investment Banking; Venture Capital; Brokerage; Ratings and Ratings Agencies, Browse content in G3 - Corporate Finance and Governance, G31 - Capital Budgeting; Fixed Investment and Inventory Studies; Capacity, G32 - Financing Policy; Financial Risk and Risk Management; Capital and Ownership Structure; Value of Firms; Goodwill, G34 - Mergers; Acquisitions; Restructuring; Corporate Governance, Browse content in G4 - Behavioral Finance, G41 - Role and Effects of Psychological, Emotional, Social, and Cognitive Factors on Decision Making in Financial Markets, G51 - Household Saving, Borrowing, Debt, and Wealth, Browse content in H1 - Structure and Scope of Government, H11 - Structure, Scope, and Performance of Government, Browse content in H2 - Taxation, Subsidies, and Revenue, H23 - Externalities; Redistributive Effects; Environmental Taxes and Subsidies, H24 - Personal Income and Other Nonbusiness Taxes and Subsidies; includes inheritance and gift taxes, H3 - Fiscal Policies and Behavior of Economic Agents, Browse content in H3 - Fiscal Policies and Behavior of Economic Agents, Browse content in H4 - Publicly Provided Goods, H44 - Publicly Provided Goods: Mixed Markets, H5 - National Government Expenditures and Related Policies, Browse content in H5 - National Government Expenditures and Related Policies, H52 - Government Expenditures and Education, H53 - Government Expenditures and Welfare Programs, H54 - Infrastructures; Other Public Investment and Capital Stock, H55 - Social Security and Public Pensions, Browse content in H6 - National Budget, Deficit, and Debt, H63 - Debt; Debt Management; Sovereign Debt, H7 - State and Local Government; Intergovernmental Relations, Browse content in H7 - State and Local Government; Intergovernmental Relations, H71 - State and Local Taxation, Subsidies, and Revenue, H73 - Interjurisdictional Differentials and Their Effects, H75 - State and Local Government: Health; Education; Welfare; Public Pensions, H76 - State and Local Government: Other Expenditure Categories, H77 - Intergovernmental Relations; Federalism; Secession, Browse content in H8 - Miscellaneous Issues, H83 - Public Administration; Public Sector Accounting and Audits, H87 - International Fiscal Issues; International Public Goods, Browse content in I - Health, Education, and Welfare, I13 - Health Insurance, Public and Private, I18 - Government Policy; Regulation; Public Health, Browse content in I2 - Education and Research Institutions, I23 - Higher Education; Research Institutions, Browse content in I3 - Welfare, Well-Being, and Poverty, I32 - Measurement and Analysis of Poverty, I38 - Government Policy; Provision and Effects of Welfare Programs, Browse content in J - Labor and Demographic Economics, Browse content in J1 - Demographic Economics, J12 - Marriage; Marital Dissolution; Family Structure; Domestic Abuse, J13 - Fertility; Family Planning; Child Care; Children; Youth, J14 - Economics of the Elderly; Economics of the Handicapped; Non-Labor Market Discrimination, J15 - Economics of Minorities, Races, Indigenous Peoples, and Immigrants; Non-labor Discrimination, J16 - Economics of Gender; Non-labor Discrimination, Browse content in J2 - Demand and Supply of Labor, J21 - Labor Force and Employment, Size, and Structure, J24 - Human Capital; Skills; Occupational Choice; Labor Productivity, J3 - Wages, Compensation, and Labor Costs, Browse content in J3 - Wages, Compensation, and Labor Costs, J31 - Wage Level and Structure; Wage Differentials, J33 - Compensation Packages; Payment Methods, Browse content in J4 - Particular Labor Markets, J44 - Professional Labor Markets; Occupational Licensing, J5 - Labor-Management Relations, Trade Unions, and Collective Bargaining, Browse content in J5 - Labor-Management Relations, Trade Unions, and Collective Bargaining, J51 - Trade Unions: Objectives, Structure, and Effects, J53 - Labor-Management Relations; Industrial Jurisprudence, J6 - Mobility, Unemployment, Vacancies, and Immigrant Workers, Browse content in J6 - Mobility, Unemployment, Vacancies, and Immigrant Workers, J61 - Geographic Labor Mobility; Immigrant Workers, J62 - Job, Occupational, and Intergenerational Mobility, J64 - Unemployment: Models, Duration, Incidence, and Job Search, J65 - Unemployment Insurance; Severance Pay; Plant Closings, Browse content in J7 - Labor Discrimination, J8 - Labor Standards: National and International, Browse content in J8 - Labor Standards: National and International, Browse content in K1 - Basic Areas of Law, Browse content in K3 - Other Substantive Areas of Law, K4 - Legal Procedure, the Legal System, and Illegal Behavior, Browse content in K4 - Legal Procedure, the Legal System, and Illegal Behavior, K42 - Illegal Behavior and the Enforcement of Law, Browse content in L - Industrial Organization, L1 - Market Structure, Firm Strategy, and Market Performance, Browse content in L1 - Market Structure, Firm Strategy, and Market Performance, L11 - Production, Pricing, and Market Structure; Size Distribution of Firms, L13 - Oligopoly and Other Imperfect Markets, L14 - Transactional Relationships; Contracts and Reputation; Networks, L15 - Information and Product Quality; Standardization and Compatibility, L16 - Industrial Organization and Macroeconomics: Industrial Structure and Structural Change; Industrial Price Indices, L2 - Firm Objectives, Organization, and Behavior, Browse content in L2 - Firm Objectives, Organization, and Behavior, L22 - Firm Organization and Market Structure, L24 - Contracting Out; Joint Ventures; Technology Licensing, L25 - Firm Performance: Size, Diversification, and Scope, L3 - Nonprofit Organizations and Public Enterprise, Browse content in L3 - Nonprofit Organizations and Public Enterprise, L33 - Comparison of Public and Private Enterprises and Nonprofit Institutions; Privatization; Contracting Out, Browse content in L4 - Antitrust Issues and Policies, L41 - Monopolization; Horizontal Anticompetitive Practices, L42 - Vertical Restraints; Resale Price Maintenance; Quantity Discounts, Browse content in L5 - Regulation and Industrial Policy, Browse content in L6 - Industry Studies: Manufacturing, L62 - Automobiles; Other Transportation Equipment; Related Parts and Equipment, L63 - Microelectronics; Computers; Communications Equipment, L66 - Food; Beverages; Cosmetics; Tobacco; Wine and Spirits, L7 - Industry Studies: Primary Products and Construction, Browse content in L7 - Industry Studies: Primary Products and Construction, L71 - Mining, Extraction, and Refining: Hydrocarbon Fuels, Browse content in L8 - Industry Studies: Services, L81 - Retail and Wholesale Trade; e-Commerce, L83 - Sports; Gambling; Recreation; Tourism, L84 - Personal, Professional, and Business Services, L86 - Information and Internet Services; Computer Software, L9 - Industry Studies: Transportation and Utilities, Browse content in L9 - Industry Studies: Transportation and Utilities, M - Business Administration and Business Economics; Marketing; Accounting; Personnel Economics, Browse content in M - Business Administration and Business Economics; Marketing; Accounting; Personnel Economics, Browse content in M1 - Business Administration, M12 - Personnel Management; Executives; Executive Compensation, M14 - Corporate Culture; Social Responsibility, Browse content in M2 - Business Economics, Browse content in M3 - Marketing and Advertising, Browse content in M4 - Accounting and Auditing, Browse content in M5 - Personnel Economics, M51 - Firm Employment Decisions; Promotions, M52 - Compensation and Compensation Methods and Their Effects, N01 - Development of the Discipline: Historiographical; Sources and Methods, N1 - Macroeconomics and Monetary Economics; Industrial Structure; Growth; Fluctuations, Browse content in N1 - Macroeconomics and Monetary Economics; Industrial Structure; Growth; Fluctuations, N10 - General, International, or Comparative, Browse content in N2 - Financial Markets and Institutions, N20 - General, International, or Comparative, N3 - Labor and Consumers, Demography, Education, Health, Welfare, Income, Wealth, Religion, and Philanthropy, Browse content in N3 - Labor and Consumers, Demography, Education, Health, Welfare, Income, Wealth, Religion, and Philanthropy, N30 - General, International, or Comparative, N4 - Government, War, Law, International Relations, and Regulation, Browse content in N4 - Government, War, Law, International Relations, and Regulation, N40 - General, International, or Comparative, N5 - Agriculture, Natural Resources, Environment, and Extractive Industries, Browse content in N5 - Agriculture, Natural Resources, Environment, and Extractive Industries, N50 - General, International, or Comparative, Browse content in N6 - Manufacturing and Construction, N7 - Transport, Trade, Energy, Technology, and Other Services, Browse content in N7 - Transport, Trade, Energy, Technology, and Other Services, Browse content in N8 - Micro-Business History, Browse content in N9 - Regional and Urban History, O - Economic Development, Innovation, Technological Change, and Growth, Browse content in O - Economic Development, Innovation, Technological Change, and Growth, Browse content in O1 - Economic Development, O11 - Macroeconomic Analyses of Economic Development, O12 - Microeconomic Analyses of Economic Development, O13 - Agriculture; Natural Resources; Energy; Environment; Other Primary Products, O14 - Industrialization; Manufacturing and Service Industries; Choice of Technology, O15 - Human Resources; Human Development; Income Distribution; Migration, O16 - Financial Markets; Saving and Capital Investment; Corporate Finance and Governance, O17 - Formal and Informal Sectors; Shadow Economy; Institutional Arrangements, O18 - Urban, Rural, Regional, and Transportation Analysis; Housing; Infrastructure, O19 - International Linkages to Development; Role of International Organizations, Browse content in O2 - Development Planning and Policy, O23 - Fiscal and Monetary Policy in Development, O3 - Innovation; Research and Development; Technological Change; Intellectual Property Rights, Browse content in O3 - Innovation; Research and Development; Technological Change; Intellectual Property Rights, O31 - Innovation and Invention: Processes and Incentives, O32 - Management of Technological Innovation and R&D, O33 - Technological Change: Choices and Consequences; Diffusion Processes, O34 - Intellectual Property and Intellectual Capital, O4 - Economic Growth and Aggregate Productivity, Browse content in O4 - Economic Growth and Aggregate Productivity, O41 - One, Two, and Multisector Growth Models, O47 - Empirical Studies of Economic Growth; Aggregate Productivity; Cross-Country Output Convergence, Browse content in O5 - Economywide Country Studies, Browse content in P1 - Capitalist Systems, P2 - Socialist Systems and Transitional Economies, Browse content in P2 - Socialist Systems and Transitional Economies, P3 - Socialist Institutions and Their Transitions, Browse content in P3 - Socialist Institutions and Their Transitions, P37 - Legal Institutions; Illegal Behavior, Browse content in P4 - Other Economic Systems, P48 - Political Economy; Legal Institutions; Property Rights; Natural Resources; Energy; Environment; Regional Studies, Browse content in P5 - Comparative Economic Systems, P51 - Comparative Analysis of Economic Systems, Q - Agricultural and Natural Resource Economics; Environmental and Ecological Economics, Browse content in Q - Agricultural and Natural Resource Economics; Environmental and Ecological Economics, Q12 - Micro Analysis of Farm Firms, Farm Households, and Farm Input Markets, Q13 - Agricultural Markets and Marketing; Cooperatives; Agribusiness, Q15 - Land Ownership and Tenure; Land Reform; Land Use; Irrigation; Agriculture and Environment, Q16 - R&D; Agricultural Technology; Biofuels; Agricultural Extension Services, Q2 - Renewable Resources and Conservation, Browse content in Q2 - Renewable Resources and Conservation, Q3 - Nonrenewable Resources and Conservation, Browse content in Q3 - Nonrenewable Resources and Conservation, Q32 - Exhaustible Resources and Economic Development, Q34 - Natural Resources and Domestic and International Conflicts, Browse content in Q5 - Environmental Economics, Q54 - Climate; Natural Disasters; Global Warming, Q56 - Environment and Development; Environment and Trade; Sustainability; Environmental Accounts and Accounting; Environmental Equity; Population Growth, R - Urban, Rural, Regional, Real Estate, and Transportation Economics, Browse content in R - Urban, Rural, Regional, Real Estate, and Transportation Economics, Browse content in R1 - General Regional Economics, R11 - Regional Economic Activity: Growth, Development, Environmental Issues, and Changes, R12 - Size and Spatial Distributions of Regional Economic Activity, R13 - General Equilibrium and Welfare Economic Analysis of Regional Economies, Browse content in R2 - Household Analysis, R23 - Regional Migration; Regional Labor Markets; Population; Neighborhood Characteristics, R3 - Real Estate Markets, Spatial Production Analysis, and Firm Location, Browse content in R3 - Real Estate Markets, Spatial Production Analysis, and Firm Location, Browse content in R4 - Transportation Economics, R41 - Transportation: Demand, Supply, and Congestion; Travel Time; Safety and Accidents; Transportation Noise, Browse content in Z - Other Special Topics, Z1 - Cultural Economics; Economic Sociology; Economic Anthropology, Browse content in Z1 - Cultural Economics; Economic Sociology; Economic Anthropology, Z13 - Economic Sociology; Economic Anthropology; Social and Economic Stratification, B - History of Economic Thought, Methodology, and Heterodox.